Combinat
#
Combinat — Module.
This module started as a Julia port of combinatorics and basic number theory functions from GAP. See comments below on how it compares to Combinatorics.jl. The only dependency is the Primes package.
The list of functions it exports are:
Classical enumerations:
combinations, arrangements, permutations, partitions, partition_tuples, compositions, multisets
functions to count enumerations without computing them:
ncombinations, narrangements, npartitions, npartition_tuples, ncompositions, nmultisets
some functions on partitions and permutations:
lcm_partitions, gcd_partitions, conjugate_partition, dominates, tableaux, robinson_schensted
counting functions:
bell, stirling1, stirling2, catalan, bernoulli
number theory
prime_residues, primitiveroot moebius
some structural manipulations not (yet?) in Julia:
groupby, tally, tally_sorted, collectby, unique_sorted! union_sorted intersect_sorted
matrix blocks:
Have a look at the individual docstrings and enjoy (any feedback is welcome).
After writing most of this module, I became aware of the package Combinatorics which has a considerable overlap. However there are some discrepancies between these two packages which make Combinatorics not easily usable for me:
- I often use sorting in algorithms where
Combinatoricsuses hashing. So the algorithms do not always apply to the same types (sorting is often faster). For some algorithms, a keyword lets you choose a hashing variant. Here hashable refers to a type which has ahashmethod and sortable to a type which has anislessmethod. Combinatorics.combinationsdoes not include the empty subset.- I use lower case for functions that return enumerations as a list and camel case for iterators. Many enumerations have both variants.
Combinatoricshas only one variant for enumerations, which is often a lowercase iterator. Combinatoricshas fewer enumerations.
A less fundamental discrepancy concerns names. However I would welcome discussions with the authors of Combinatorics to see if the two packages could be made more compatible in this respect.
#
Combinat.combinations — Function.
combinations(mset[,k];dict=false), ncombinations(mset[,k];dict=false)
combinations returns all combinations of the multiset mset (a collection or iterable with possible repetitions). If a second integer argument k is given, it returns the combinations with k elements. k may also be a vector of integers, then it returns the combinations whose number of elements is one of these integers.
ncombinations returns (faster) the number of combinations.
A combination is an unordered subsequence.
By default, the elements of mset are assumed sortable and a combination is represented by a sorted Vector. The combinations with a fixed number k of elements are listed in lexicographic order. If the elements of mset are not sortable but hashable, the keyword dict=true can be given and the (slightly slower) computation is done using a Dict.
If mset has no repetitions, the list of all combinations is just the powerset of mset.
julia> ncombinations([1,2,2,3])
12
julia> combinations([1,2,2,3])
12-element Vector{Vector{Int64}}:
[]
[1]
[2]
[3]
[1, 2]
[1, 3]
[2, 2]
[2, 3]
[1, 2, 2]
[1, 2, 3]
[2, 2, 3]
[1, 2, 2, 3]
The combinations are implemented by an iterator Combinat.Combinations which can enumerate the combinations of a large multiset.
#
Combinat.Combinations — Type.
Combinat.Combinations(s[,k]) is an iterator which enumerates the combinations of the multiset s (with k elements if kgiven) in lexicographic order. The elements of s must be sortable. If they are not, but hashable, giving the keyword dict=true will give an iterator on an unsorted result.
julia> a=Combinat.Combinations(1:4);
julia> collect(a)
16-element Vector{Vector{Int64}}:
[]
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[1, 2]
[1, 3]
[1, 4]
[2, 3]
[2, 4]
[3, 4]
[1, 2, 3]
[1, 2, 4]
[1, 3, 4]
[2, 3, 4]
[1, 2, 3, 4]
julia> a=Combinat.Combinations([1,2,2,3,4,4],3)
Combinations([1, 2, 2, 3, 4, 4],3)
julia> collect(a)
10-element Vector{Vector{Int64}}:
[1, 2, 2]
[1, 2, 3]
[1, 2, 4]
[1, 3, 4]
[1, 4, 4]
[2, 2, 3]
[2, 2, 4]
[2, 3, 4]
[2, 4, 4]
[3, 4, 4]
#
Combinat.arrangements — Function.
arrangements(mset[,k]), narrangements(mset[,k])
arrangements returns the arrangements of the multiset mset (a not necessarily sorted collection with possible repetitions). If a second argument k is given, it returns arrangements with k elements. narrangements returns (faster) the number of arrangements.
An arrangement of mset with k elements is a subsequence of length k taken in arbitrary order, representated as a Vector. When k==length(mset) it is also called a permutation.
As an example of arrangements of a multiset, think of the game Scrabble. Suppose you have the six characters of the word 'settle' and you have to make a two letter word. Then the possibilities are given by
julia> narrangements("settle",2)
14
while all possible words (including the empty one) are:
julia> narrangements("settle")
523
The result returned by 'arrangements' is sorted (the elements of mset must be sortable), which means in this example that the possibilities are listed in the same order as they appear in the dictionary. Here are the two-letter words:
julia> String.(arrangements("settle",2))
14-element Vector{String}:
"ee"
"el"
"es"
"et"
"le"
"ls"
"lt"
"se"
"sl"
"st"
"te"
"tl"
"ts"
"tt"
#
Combinat.permutations — Function.
permutations(n)
returns in lexicographic order the permutations of 1:n. This is a faster version of arrangements(1:n,n). permutations is implemented by an iterator Combinat.Permutations which can be used to enumerate the permutations of a large number.
julia> permutations(3)
6-element Vector{Any}:
[1, 2, 3]
[1, 3, 2]
[2, 1, 3]
[2, 3, 1]
[3, 1, 2]
[3, 2, 1]
julia> sum(first(p) for p in Combinat.Permutations(5))
360
#
Combinat.partitions — Function.
partitions(n::Integer[,k]), npartitions(n::Integer[,k])
partitions returns in lexicographic order the partitions (with k parts if k is given) of the positive integer n . npartitions returns (faster) the number of partitions.
There are approximately exp(π√(2n/3))/(4√3 n) partitions of n.
A partition is a decomposition n=p₁+p₂+…+pₖ in integers with p₁≥p₂≥…≥pₖ>0, and is represented by the vector p=[p₁,p₂,…,pₖ]. We write p⊢n.
julia> npartitions(7)
15
julia> partitions(7)
15-element Vector{Vector{Int64}}:
[1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1]
[2, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1]
[2, 2, 1, 1, 1]
[2, 2, 2, 1]
[3, 1, 1, 1, 1]
[3, 2, 1, 1]
[3, 2, 2]
[3, 3, 1]
[4, 1, 1, 1]
[4, 2, 1]
[4, 3]
[5, 1, 1]
[5, 2]
[6, 1]
[7]
julia> npartitions(7,3)
4
julia> partitions(7,3)
4-element Vector{Vector{Int64}}:
[3, 2, 2]
[3, 3, 1]
[4, 2, 1]
[5, 1, 1]
The partitions are implemented by an iterator Combinat.Partitions which can be used to enumerate the partitions of a large number.
partitions(n::Integer,set::AbstractVector[,k]), npartitions(n::Integer,set::AbstractVector[,k])
returns the list of partitions of n (with k parts if k is given) restricted to have parts in set. npartitions gives (faster) the number of such partitions.
Let us show how many ways there are to pay 17 cents using coins of 2,5 and 10 cents.
julia> npartitions(17,[10,5,2])
3
julia> partitions(17,[10,5,2])
3-element Vector{Vector{Int64}}:
[5, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2, 2]
[5, 5, 5, 2]
[10, 5, 2]
julia> npartitions(17,[10,5,2],3) # pay with 3 coins
1
julia> partitions(17,[10,5,2],3)
1-element Vector{Vector{Int64}}:
[10, 5, 2]
partitions(set::AbstractVector[,k]), npartitions(set::AbstractVector[,k])
the set of all unordered partitions (in k sets if k is given) of the set set (a collection without repetitions). npartitions returns the number of unordered partitions.
An unordered partition of set is a set of pairwise disjoints sets whose union is equal to set, and is represented by a Vector of Vectors.
julia> npartitions(1:3)
5
julia> partitions(1:3)
5-element Vector{Vector{Vector{Int64}}}:
[[1, 2, 3]]
[[1, 2], [3]]
[[1, 3], [2]]
[[1], [2, 3]]
[[1], [2], [3]]
julia> npartitions(1:4,2)
7
julia> partitions(1:4,2)
7-element Vector{Vector{Vector{Int64}}}:
[[1, 2, 3], [4]]
[[1, 2, 4], [3]]
[[1, 2], [3, 4]]
[[1, 3, 4], [2]]
[[1, 3], [2, 4]]
[[1, 4], [2, 3]]
[[1], [2, 3, 4]]
Note that unique(sort.(partitions(mset[,k]))) is a version which works for a multiset mset.
#
Combinat.Partitions — Type.
Combinat.Partitions(n[,k]) is an iterator which enumerates the partitions of n (with k parts if kgiven) in lexicographic order.
julia> a=Combinat.Partitions(5)
Partitions(5)
julia> collect(a)
7-element Vector{Vector{Int64}}:
[1, 1, 1, 1, 1]
[2, 1, 1, 1]
[2, 2, 1]
[3, 1, 1]
[3, 2]
[4, 1]
[5]
julia> a=Combinat.Partitions(10,3)
Partitions(10,3)
julia> collect(a)
8-element Vector{Vector{Int64}}:
[4, 3, 3]
[4, 4, 2]
[5, 3, 2]
[5, 4, 1]
[6, 2, 2]
[6, 3, 1]
[7, 2, 1]
[8, 1, 1]
#
Combinat.partition_tuples — Function.
partition_tuples(n,r), npartition_tuples(n,r)
the r-tuples of partitions that together partition n. npartition_tuples is the number of partition tuples.
julia> npartition_tuples(3,2)
10
julia> partition_tuples(3,2)
10-element Vector{Vector{Vector{Int64}}}:
[[1, 1, 1], []]
[[1, 1], [1]]
[[1], [1, 1]]
[[], [1, 1, 1]]
[[2, 1], []]
[[1], [2]]
[[2], [1]]
[[], [2, 1]]
[[3], []]
[[], [3]]
#
Combinat.compositions — Function.
compositions(n[,k];min=1), ncompositions(n[,k];min=1)
This function returns the compositions of n (the compositions of length k if a second argument k is given), where a composition of the integer n is a decomposition n=p₁+…+pₖ in integers ≥min, represented as the vector [p₁,…,pₖ]. Unless k is given, min must be >0. Compositions are sometimes called ordered partitions.
ncompositions returns (faster) the number of compositions. There are $2^{n-1}$ compositions of n in integers ≥1, and binomial(n-1,k-1) compositions of n in k parts ≥1.
julia> ncompositions(4)
8
julia> compositions(4)
8-element Vector{SubArray{Int64, 1, Matrix{Int64}, Tuple{Int64, Base.Slice{Base.OneTo{Int64}}}, true}}:
[4]
[1, 3]
[2, 2]
[3, 1]
[1, 1, 2]
[1, 2, 1]
[2, 1, 1]
[1, 1, 1, 1]
julia> ncompositions(4,2)
3
julia> compositions(4,2)
3-element Vector{SubArray{Int64, 1, Matrix{Int64}, Tuple{Int64, Base.Slice{Base.OneTo{Int64}}}, true}}:
[1, 3]
[2, 2]
[3, 1]
julia> ncompositions(4,2;min=0)
5
julia> compositions(4,2;min=0)
5-element Vector{SubArray{Int64, 1, Matrix{Int64}, Tuple{Int64, Base.Slice{Base.OneTo{Int64}}}, true}}:
[0, 4]
[1, 3]
[2, 2]
[3, 1]
[4, 0]
#
Combinat.multisets — Function.
multisets(set,k), nmultisets(set,k)
multisets returns the set of all multisets of length k made of elements of the set set (a collection without repetitions). nmultisets returns the number of multisets.
An multiset of length k is an unordered selection with repetitions of length k from set and is represented by a sorted vector of length k made of elements from set (it is also sometimes called a "combination with replacement").
julia> multisets(1:4,3)
20-element Vector{Vector{Int64}}:
[1, 1, 1]
[1, 1, 2]
[1, 1, 3]
[1, 1, 4]
[1, 2, 2]
[1, 2, 3]
[1, 2, 4]
[1, 3, 3]
[1, 3, 4]
[1, 4, 4]
[2, 2, 2]
[2, 2, 3]
[2, 2, 4]
[2, 3, 3]
[2, 3, 4]
[2, 4, 4]
[3, 3, 3]
[3, 3, 4]
[3, 4, 4]
[4, 4, 4]
#
Combinat.lcm_partitions — Function.
lcm_partitions(p1,…,pn)
each argument is a partition of the same set S, given as a list of disjoint vectors whose union is S. Equivalently each argument can be interpreted as an equivalence relation on S.
The result is the finest partition of S such that each argument partition refines it. It represents the 'or' of the equivalence relations represented by the arguments.
julia> lcm_partitions([[1,2],[3,4],[5,6]],[[1],[2,5],[3],[4],[6]])
2-element Vector{Vector{Int64}}:
[1, 2, 5, 6]
[3, 4]
#
Combinat.gcd_partitions — Function.
gcd_partitions(p1,…,pn)
Each argument is a partition of the same set S, given as a list of disjoint vectors whose union is S. Equivalently each argument can be interpreted as an equivalence relation on S.
The result is the coarsest partition which refines all argument partitions. It represents the 'and' of the equivalence relations represented by the arguments.
julia> gcd_partitions([[1,2],[3,4],[5,6]],[[1],[2,5],[3],[4],[6]])
6-element Vector{Vector{Int64}}:
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
#
Combinat.conjugate_partition — Function.
conjugate_partition(λ)
returns the conjugate partition of the partition λ, that is, the partition having the transposed of the Young diagram of λ.
julia> conjugate_partition([4,2,1])
4-element Vector{Int64}:
3
2
1
1
julia> conjugate_partition([6])
6-element Vector{Int64}:
1
1
1
1
1
1
#
Combinat.dominates — Function.
dominates(λ,μ)
The dominance order on partitions is an important partial order in representation theory. λ dominates μ if and only if for all i we have sum(λ[1:i])≥sum(μ[1:i]).
julia> dominates([5,4],[4,4,1])
true
#
Combinat.tableaux — Function.
tableaux(S)
if S is a partition tuple, returns the list of standard tableaux associated with the partition tuple S, that is a filling of the associated young diagrams with the numbers 1:sum(sum,S) such that the numbers increase across the rows and down the columns.
If S is a single partition, the standard tableaux for that partition are returned.
julia> tableaux([[2,1],[1]])
8-element Vector{Vector{Vector{Vector{Int64}}}}:
[[[1, 2], [3]], [[4]]]
[[[1, 2], [4]], [[3]]]
[[[1, 3], [2]], [[4]]]
[[[1, 3], [4]], [[2]]]
[[[1, 4], [2]], [[3]]]
[[[1, 4], [3]], [[2]]]
[[[2, 3], [4]], [[1]]]
[[[2, 4], [3]], [[1]]]
julia> tableaux([2,2])
2-element Vector{Vector{Vector{Int64}}}:
[[1, 2], [3, 4]]
[[1, 3], [2, 4]]
#
Combinat.robinson_schensted — Function.
robinson_schensted(p::AbstractVector{<:Integer})
returns the pair of standard tableaux associated with the permutation p by the Robinson-Schensted correspondence.
julia> robinson_schensted([2,3,4,1])
([[1, 3, 4], [2]], [[1, 2, 3], [4]])
#
Combinat.bell — Function.
'bell(n)'
The Bell numbers are defined by bell(0)=1 and $bell(n+1)=∑_{k=0}^n {n \choose k}bell(k)$, or by the fact that bell(n)/n! is the coefficient of xⁿ in the formal series e^(eˣ-1).
julia> bell.(0:6)
7-element Vector{Int64}:
1
1
2
5
15
52
203
julia> bell(14)
190899322
julia> bell(big(30))
846749014511809332450147
julia-repl
#
Combinat.stirling1 — Function.
stirling1(n,k)
the Stirling numbers of the first kind S₁(n,k) are defined by S₁(0,0)=1, S₁(n,0)=S₁(0,k)=0 if n, k!=0 and the recurrence S₁(n,k)=(n-1)S₁(n-1,k)+S₁(n-1,k-1).
S₁(n,k) is the number of permutations of n points with k cycles. They are also given by the generating function $n!{x\choose n}=\sum_{k=0}^n(S₁(n,k) x^k)$. Note the similarity to $x^n=\sum_{k=0}^n S₂(n,k)k!{x\choose k}$ (see stirling2). Also the definition of S₁ implies S₁(n,k)=S₂(-k,-n) if n,k<0. There are many formulae relating Stirling numbers of the first kind to Stirling numbers of the second kind, Bell numbers, and Binomial numbers.
julia> stirling1.(4,0:4) # Knuth calls this the trademark of S₁
5-element Vector{Int64}:
0
6
11
6
1
julia> [stirling1(n,k) for n in 0:6, k in 0:6] # similar to Pascal's triangle
7×7 Matrix{Int64}:
1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 2 3 1 0 0 0
0 6 11 6 1 0 0
0 24 50 35 10 1 0
0 120 274 225 85 15 1
julia> stirling1(50,big(10)) # give `big` second argument to avoid overflow
101623020926367490059043797119309944043405505380503665627365376
#
Combinat.stirling2 — Function.
stirling2(n,k)
the Stirling numbers of the second kind are defined by S₂(0,0)=1, S₂(n,0)=S₂(0,k)=0 if n, k!=0 and S₂(n,k)=k S₂(n-1,k)+S₂(n-1,k-1), and also as coefficients of the generating function $x^n=\sum_{k=0}^{n}S₂(n,k) k!{x\choose k}$.
julia> stirling2.(4,0:4) # Knuth calls this the trademark of S₂
5-element Vector{Int64}:
0
1
7
6
1
julia> [stirling2(i,j) for i in 0:6, j in 0:6] # similar to Pascal's triangle
7×7 Matrix{Int64}:
1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 1 3 1 0 0 0
0 1 7 6 1 0 0
0 1 15 25 10 1 0
0 1 31 90 65 15 1
julia> stirling2(50,big(10)) # give `big` second argument to avoid overflow
26154716515862881292012777396577993781727011
#
Combinat.catalan — Method.
Catalan(n) n-th Catalan Number
julia> catalan(8)
1430
julia> catalan(big(50))
1978261657756160653623774456
#
Combinat.groupby — Function.
groupby(v,l)
group elements of collection l according to the corresponding values in the collection v (which should have same length as l).
julia> groupby([31,28,31,30,31,30,31,31,30,31,30,31],
[:Jan,:Feb,:Mar,:Apr,:May,:Jun,:Jul,:Aug,:Sep,:Oct,:Nov,:Dec])
Dict{Int64,Vector{Symbol}} with 3 entries:
31 => Symbol[:Jan, :Mar, :May, :Jul, :Aug, :Oct, :Dec]
28 => Symbol[:Feb]
30 => Symbol[:Apr, :Jun, :Sep, :Nov]
groupby(f::Function,l)
group elements of collection l according to the values taken by function f on them. The values of f must be hashable.
julia> groupby(iseven,1:10)
Dict{Bool, Vector{Int64}} with 2 entries:
0 => [1, 3, 5, 7, 9]
1 => [2, 4, 6, 8, 10]
Note: keys of the result will have type Any if l is empty since I do not know how to access the return type of a function
#
Combinat.tally — Function.
tally(v;dict=false)
counts how many times each element of collection or iterable v occurs and returns a sorted Vector of elt=>count (a variant of StatsBase.countmap). By default the elements of v must be sortable; if they are not but hashable, giving the keyword dict=true uses a Dict to build (much slower) an unsorted result.
julia> tally("a tally test")
7-element Vector{Pair{Char, Int64}}:
' ' => 2
'a' => 2
'e' => 1
'l' => 2
's' => 1
't' => 3
'y' => 1
#
Combinat.tally_sorted — Function.
tally_sorted(v)
tally_sorted is like tally but works only for a sorted iterable. The point is that it is very fast.
#
Combinat.collectby — Function.
collectby(f,v)
group the elements of v in packets (Vectors) where f takes the same value. The resulting Vector{Vector} is sorted by the values of f (the values of f must be sortable; otherwise you can use the slower values(groupby(f,v))). Here f can be a function of one variable or a collection of same length as v.
julia> l=[:Jan,:Feb,:Mar,:Apr,:May,:Jun,:Jul,:Aug,:Sep,:Oct,:Nov,:Dec];
julia> collectby(x->first(string(x)),l)
8-element Vector{Vector{Symbol}}:
[:Apr, :Aug]
[:Dec]
[:Feb]
[:Jan, :Jun, :Jul]
[:Mar, :May]
[:Nov]
[:Oct]
[:Sep]
julia> collectby("JFMAMJJASOND",l)
8-element Vector{Vector{Symbol}}:
[:Apr, :Aug]
[:Dec]
[:Feb]
[:Jan, :Jun, :Jul]
[:Mar, :May]
[:Nov]
[:Oct]
[:Sep]
julia-repl
#
Combinat.unique_sorted! — Function.
unique_sorted!(v::Vector) faster than unique! for sorted v
#
Combinat.intersect_sorted — Function.
intersect_sorted(a,b)
intersects a and b assumed to be both sorted and without repetitions(and their elements sortable). This is many times faster than intersect.
#
Combinat.union_sorted — Function.
union_sorted(a,b)
computes the union of a and b assumed to be both sorted and without repetitions (and their elements sortable). The result is sorted, so may differ from union; this function is many times faster than union.
#
Combinat.diagblocks — Function.
diagblocks(M::Matrix)
M should be a square matrix. Define a graph G with vertices 1:size(M,1) and with an edge between i and j if either M[i,j] or M[j,i] is not zero or false. diagblocks returns a vector of vectors I such that I[1],I[2], etc.. are the vertices in each connected component of G. In other words, M[I[1],I[1]],M[I[2],I[2]],etc... are diagonal blocks of M.
julia> m=[0 0 0 1;0 0 1 0;0 1 0 0;1 0 0 0]
4×4 Matrix{Int64}:
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
julia> diagblocks(m)
2-element Vector{Vector{Int64}}:
[1, 4]
[2, 3]
julia> m[[1,4,2,3],[1,4,2,3]]
4×4 Matrix{Int64}:
0 1 0 0
1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
#
Combinat.blocks — Method.
blocks(M:AbstractMatrix)
Finds if the matrix M admits a block decomposition.
Define a bipartite graph G with vertices axes(M,1), axes(M,2) and with an edge between i and j if M[i,j] is not zero. BlocksMat returns a list of pairs of lists I such that I[i], etc.. are the vertices in the i-th connected component of G. In other words, M[I[1][1],I[1][2]], M[I[2][1],I[2][2]],etc... are blocks of M.
This function may also be applied to boolean matrices.
julia> m=[1 0 0 0;0 1 0 0;1 0 1 0;0 0 0 1;0 0 1 0]
5×4 Matrix{Int64}:
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
julia> blocks(m)
3-element Vector{Tuple{Vector{Int64}, Vector{Int64}}}:
([1, 3, 5], [1, 3])
([2], [2])
([4], [4])
julia> m[[1,3,5,2,4],[1,3,2,4]]
5×4 Matrix{Int64}:
1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0
0 1 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 1
#
Combinat.bernoulli — Function.
bernoulli(n) the n-th Bernoulli number Bₙ as a Rational{BigInt}
Bₙ is defined by $B₀=1, B_n=-\sum_{k=0}^{n-1}({n+1\choose k}B_k)/(n+1)$. Bₙ/n! is the coefficient of xⁿ in the power series of x/(eˣ-1). Except for B₁=-1/2 the Bernoulli numbers for odd indices are zero.
julia> bernoulli(4)
-1//30
julia> bernoulli(10)
5//66
julia> bernoulli(12) # there is no simple pattern in Bernoulli numbers
-691//2730
julia> bernoulli(50) # and they grow fairly fast
495057205241079648212477525//66
#
Combinat.prime_residues — Function.
prime_residues(n) the numbers in 1:n prime to n
julia> [prime_residues(24)]
1-element Vector{Vector{Int64}}:
[1, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23]
#
Combinat.primitiveroot — Function.
primitiveroot(m::Integer) a primitive root, that is generating multiplicatively mod. m the prime_residues(m). The function returns nothing if there is no primitive root mod. m.
A primitive root exists if m is of the form 4, p^a or 2p^a for p prime>2.
julia> primitiveroot(23)
5
#
Combinat.moebius — Function.
moebius(n::Integer)
The classical Möbius function is the Möbius function of the poset of integers for divisibility. It is zero outside square-free integers, and for square-free integers is `(-1)ⁿ' where n is the number of prime factors.
julia> moebius.(1:6)
6-element Vector{Int64}:
1
-1
-1
0
-1
1